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The rise of the Islamic State (ISIS)

Photo: Thierry Ehrmann, État Islamique- Daesh P1050159 (2012). Source: (flickr.com) | (CC BY 2.0)

History and rebirth of the Caliphate

The history of ISIS goes back to 2004, when a Jordanian jihadist, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, joined Osama Bin Laden’s organisation and formed al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI). Two years later, AQI was renamed into Islamic State in Iraq (ISI) and in 2010 Baghdadi became its leader. Thereafter, the group joined the rebels against President Bashar-al Assad in Syria. In 2013, Iraqi and Syrian forces were merged under the control of Baghdadi by creating the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant. The opportunist approach of ISIS in the local conflicts helped the organisation to consolidate its hold over the cities of the area and to change its name into Islamic State.

With the occupied areas falling under the Islamic law (Sharia), it is estimated by the UN that approximately 10 million people live under ISIS control. More than 4.8 million Syrians have escaped in neighbouring countries -Turkey, Lebanon and Jordan – and Europe, while over 3 million Iraqis have been forced to leave their homes and been displaced within the country.

In response to ISIS, the US-led coalition¹ has launched airstrikes on IS positions in Iraq and Syria in August and September 2014, respectively. So far, it is estimated that ISIS has lost approximately 40% of its occupied territory in Iraq and 10% to 20% in Syria.

The History of the Caliphate and its rebirth

In order to better understand the Islamic group, it is worth to take a further look at the history of the Caliphate and how ISIS envisions it.

For more than 1,000 years, the Muslim society (Umma) was living united under one Caliphate, which was subject to the law of God (Sharia), the Qur’an and its holy traditions, known as hadiths. The fall of the Caliphate was followed shortly after the establishment of Kemal Ataturk’s presidency in Turkey. The latter has been accused of abolishing the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924 and for destroying the Islamic state.

After the failed attempts of Islamic scholars to modernise the Islamic states during the 20th century, ISIS is now claiming the revival of the true Islamic Caliphate. The new Caliphate will be governed by its caliph and in accordance with the Islamic Law (Sharia). The role of the caliph will take over the leader of the group – Ibrahim Awad Ibrahim al-Badri al-Samarrai or Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, as he is better known. Many jihadist members of other groups have also been attracted by the plans of a new Islamic State and joined ISIS – including members of al-Qaeda.

Finally, the legitimation of IS actions is drawn from the sacred book of Qur’an. The answer lies in the concept of jihad, which means battle or struggle; the internal struggle to follow the will of God; the external battle to spread the Truth of Islam in the rest of the world. For the radical organisations of Islam, this battle has been translated as a holy war against the infidels. The attacks against the western civilisation are not only a protest against its hegemony but also against its principles. Thus, ISIS members envision themselves as warriors of God that will spread the words of Qur’an to the rest of the world.

The use of symbols inspired by the Islamic tradition: The monochrome flag

After this brief analysis for the Caliphate, it is interesting to see what other symbols ISIS uses to open up communication channels with the Islamists. The black and white flag (or the black flag) has been used as a major symbol of ISIS. Other jihad-oriented groups have also used this flag.

A closer look to the black flag reveals two important facts; the reference in the Seal of Mohammed and the Shahada; the deliberate use of the black and white font. Initially, the Arabic message in the black font declares, “There is no God but God”, while the second line of the white circle incorporates the Seal of Mohammed which states that “God’s Messenger [is] Mohammed”. These two statements consist also the Shahada, the basis for the declaration of the Islamic faith. Regarding the choice of the black and white font, according to experts, it refers to the Prophet Mohammed’s war banner that calls the world of Islam to fight against Christians.

Differences and rivalry between the religious sects of Islam

Another parameter that will help the reader to get a clearer view of why jihadist groups are thriving in the Middle East and North/ Sub-Saharan Africa is by understanding the difference between the two main religious sects of Islam.

Between Shiites and Sunnis, the schism resulted from the disagreement over who should have succeeded Prophet Mohammed after his death. According to Shia, only kinsmen of the Prophet could become caliphs, while for Sunnis caliphs could also come from the community of believers.

For Sunnis, who represent the orthodox dogma of the Muslims, they follow the tradition of Mohammed (Sunnah) and the Islamic law (Sharia). In fact, they represent 90% of the Muslim world, the majority of whom live in Egypt, Jordan and Saudi Arabia. On the other hand, Shiites worship Ali² and his relatives as the main religious figures after Mohammed. They make up 10% of the Muslims and mainly live in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, Azerbaijan and Yemen.

The rivalry between the two sects of Islam has deeply affected the current crises in the Middle East. The conflict in Syria is a great example of this endless war. Shiites from Hezbollah and Iran have been providing support to the Shia-led government against the Sunnis. In return, Sunni jihadist groups including the Islamic State (IS) have been trying to refute Shi’a forces in Syria and neighbouring Iraq. Another great example was the political standoff between the Shia-led government and the minority of Sunni Arabs in Iraq in December 2013. ISIS reinforces its presence in the area by helping the former Saddam Hussein loyalists.

ISIS-occupied zones in Syria and Iraq

How did ISIS succeed to spread its territory in Syria and Iraq? The answer lies in its self-sufficiency in troops, weapons and energy monopoly. With more than 28,000 foreign fighters have joined its army, the group has also at its disposal small and heavy weapons including captured tanks from the Syrian and the Iraqi armies.

Financially, IS is considered as one of the wealthiest militant groups. Its sources rely on funding from private donors and Islamic charities; on crude oil trade to local exporters; in special taxes to religious minorities.

All in all, the Islamic State is currently occupying the key cities in Iraq and Syria, but still has lost the control in some of its occupied cities; Tikrit, Sinjar and Ramadi in Iraq; Hassaka and much of Kobane in Syria. In December 2015, the group has captured some areas in the Nangarhar province and Jalalabad of Afghanistan, while also established its presence in Yemen.

Attacks outside ISIS territory

Above, it was examined the strength of IS in its territory and were also presented the factors that consolidated its presence in Syria and Iraq. What about IS’s global reach?

Middle East consists of the core of the ISIS activity. In Turkey, multiple attacks were carried out in Ankara and Istanbul, while in Lebanon ISIS claimed the responsibility of the Beirut twin blasts, as retaliation to Hezbollah. Egypt has also seen a strong presence of ISIS on the Sinai Peninsula. In Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, the Shiite population was the target of many attacks. Following, Jordan has suffered from ISIS threats. In Afghanistan, the attacks against the Pakistani Consulate and the TV Station in Islamabad were the result of the competition between ISIS and Taliban. Bangladesh has been the witness of numerous attacks from ISIS by targeting the Hindu community, foreigners and Muslim sects.

In North Africa, there is an imminent fear that the region will fall in ISIS domination and will be the next generator of a refugee crisis after the recent attack of Tunisian’s town Ben Guerdane that left at least 58 people dead. Additionally, Libya is currently ungoverned and was spotted as an important training ground for ISIS, while Algeria and Morocco have taken counter-terrorism measures to prevent the spread of ISIS militants in their countries.

Although North Africa has been the priority for ISIS, the group gains ground also to the south. Currently, there are three jihadist hotspots: northern Nigeria and Chad; the Horn of Africa; Mali and the Sahel region. For many years, these areas were under the al-Qaeda’s influence and so ISIS had some success in making inroads among jihadist groups in sub-Saharan Africa.

In Europe, the recent execution of 130 people in Paris and the two bomb attacks in the metro station/ airport in Brussels were the punishment for the airstrikes of the two countries against ISIS in Syria. In Copenhagen, a man that claimed allegiance to ISIS killed two people in two separate attacks in February 2015. Many European countries were also reported for ISIS activity in their territory. Bosnia was used as a base for training and for launching attacks in Europe. Spanish and Portuguese nationals were also spotted for having links with the jihadist group.

By spreading IS presence throughout South-East Asia, Thailand, Malaysia and the Philippines have feared the expansion of Islamic extremism in their territory. In Indonesia, the attack of January 2016 in Jakarta killed more than 7 people and further attacks might follow due to the big number of Muslims in the country.

Australia was also witnessing of two attacks by IS sympathisers in the past, while in the US and Canada the supporters or recruits of the jihadist group were responsible for a series of attacks. In Russia, it is located a militant jihadist group, Caucasus Emirate, which is also linked with the al-Baghdadi group. Finally, ISIS has also declared the war against China and India for violating Muslim minority rights.

Summing up

 The current article aimed to cover some important aspects of who is the Islamic State and how did it emerge in the global scene. Some important conclusions are that ISIS has already developed a responsive economic system that includes multiple sources of income; a strong military force trained by experienced military officers; a vision for establishing the Islamic State, the Caliphate, which currently includes areas in Iraq and Syria; a well-developed communication strategy to attract new supporters all over the world.

Out of the most important consequences is that the current conflict has generated a refugee crisis. A massive wave of refugees – mainly from Syria and other regions of the Middle East and North Africa – has been displaced within their countries or found shelter in the neighbouring countries and in Europe. With a global crisis underway, vulnerable groups have been inevitably stigmatised by this conflict; some European countries have refused access to refugees due to fears of further attacks in their territory. The article with the title Syria: A Refugee Crisis discusses in detail the consequences of this conflict.

Footnotes

[1] US-led coalition:

The airstrikes of the Western coalition announced against the Islamic State. Countries that took part in the coalition include USA, UK, Australia, Bahrain, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Jordan, Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Turkey and the United Arab Emirates. Russia is not part of the US-led coalition but has carried airstrikes as against ISIS in Syria.

[2] Ali:

He is the Prophet Mohammed’s son-in-law and cousin. Shiites recognise Ali as the only caliph and successor to the Prophet.

Bibliography

Alexander C. and Hodges J. (2015) What’s in a Name? The U.K. Joins Debate on Labeling of Islamic State, Bloomberg, 6th July, Available at: http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-07-06/what-s-in-a-name-u-k-joins-debate-on-labeling-of-islamic-state (Accessed 10th April 2016)

Barker A. (2016) How Islamic State’s impact has gone global, ABC News, 16th March, Available at: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-03-16/islamic-state-isis-global-impact/7089664 (Accessed 10th April 2016)

BBC (2009) Sunni and Shi’a, Religions, 19th August, Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/subdivisions/sunnishia_1.shtml (Accessed 9th April 2016)

BBC (2015) What is ‘Islamic State’? BBC News, Middle East, 2nd December, Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-29052144 (Accessed 9th April 2016)

BBC (2016a) Islamic State group: Crisis in seven charts, BBC News, 30th March, Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27838034 (Accessed 10th April 2016)

BBC (2016b) Sunnis and Shia: Islam’s ancient schism, BBC News, 4th January, Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16047709 (Accessed 9th April 2016)

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Ehrmann T. (2012) État Islamique- Daesh P1050159,

Gander K. (2015) Isis flag” What do the words mean and what are its origins? The Independent, 6th July, Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-flag-what-do-the-words-mean-and-what-are-its-origins-10369601.html (Accessed 7th April 2016)

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Laghmari J., Alexander C. and Follain J. (2016) Islamic State Spreads in North Africa in Attacks Ignored by West, Bloomberg, 16th March, Available at: http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-03-16/islamic-state-spreads-in-north-africa-in-attacks-ignored-by-west (Accessed 11th April 2016)

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Zelin Y. A. (2014) Abu Bakr al Baghdadi: Islamic State’s driving force, BBC News, 31st July, Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-28560449 (Accessed 9th April 2016)

Tags: Islamic State (IS), Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant US-led coalition, Caliphate, Syria, black flag, Shiites, Sunnis, refugee crisis

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Syria: A Refugee Crisis

Over the last five years, more than 20 million people have been displaced inside Syria or even exiled to neighbouring countries and Europe. With a Civil War taking place between those in favour and those against President Bashar-al Assad, violence and war crimes have been committed from both sides as a result of this battle. Additionally, the involvement of religious sects with the significant rise of the jihadist group of Islamic State (IS) in Syria deteriorates further the conflict.

In the fear of a refugee influx inside Europe, many EU member states have decided to impose entry restrictions to newcomers by adhering to the Regulation (EU) 604/2013 (Dublin III Regulation). This regulation shapes the Common European Asylum System which sets a single Member State as responsible for the examination of the asylum applications [Article 3,1 and 3,2 of the Regulation EU 604/2013). According to Article 18, the responsible Member State is obliged to take back the third-country national, if another Member State rejects the asylum application. Thus, the Dublin III regulation could be translated like a “burden and a punishment for the Member State which permitted the individual to arrive in the Union” (Guild 2006:637 quoted in Mouzourakis, 2014:11).

As an additional measure to stop irregular migration in Europe, the recent EU-Turkey Agreement on 18 March permits the return of migrants and asylum seekers to Turkey. The agreement recalls that each application of a third national will be subject to the EU asylum rules (Directive 2013/32/EU). The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein, expressed his serious concerns over the agreement and suggested the implementation of practical recommendations of the UN or other international organisations/experts. Finally, he warned, “if the EU starts to circumvent international law, there could be a deeply problematic knock-on effect in other parts of the world” (OHCHR, 2016).

The United Nations position over the EU Refugee policies

With the borders now closed, tens of thousands of refugees are now stranded in Greece. The UN Refugee Agency alerted the international community by saying that international solidarity and organised global action is needed to support the Syrian people. In response to the increasing need for humanitarian assistance in Europe, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has prepared a winterization appeal plan for 2015/2016 due to fears for life losses during the winter months.

Refugee crisis equals to European Crisis

Some interesting conclusions can be drawn here. First of all, the Syrian refugee problem could be translated as a crisis not only in the Middle East but in Europe as well. Both cultures are facing deep cultural and political problems. In the Middle East, the instability, the anarchy and the rise of brutal fanaticism are the dominant generators of refugee flows.

On the other side, Europe seems unable to manage its refugee issues. The internal difficulties such as recession and exit scenarios for Greece/UK put the European integration into risk. Additionally, public opinion is already divided over the reception of refugees in the EU. For instance, Germany has been critical over the strict refugee policy of other EU countries while accepting the largest number of asylum-seekers. On the contrary, Hungary has adopted a stricter stance due to fears of the rising numbers of Muslims in Europe. For the same matter, Czech Republic appeared more sceptical and reserved, while Slovakia suggested stricter measures for third nationals across the borders of the Schengen Area¹. Finally, some Western European countries such as Denmark, France and the UK adopted a quota system in the number of refugees that will enter their territory.

Photo: Mstyslav Chernov, Women and children among Syrian refugees striking at the platform of Budapest Keleti railway station (2015). Source: (Wikimedia Commons) | (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Footnotes

[1] Schengen Area:

The border-free Schengen Area allows free movement of the EU citizens to internal borders without being subjected to border checks including most EU countries (except for Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Ireland, Romania, and the United Kingdom) and four non-EU States (Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein).

Bibliography

BBC (2016) Why is EU struggling with migrants and asylum? , BBC News, 3rd March, Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24583286 (Accessed 27th March 2016)

Directive 2013/32/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 on common procedures for granting and withdrawing international protection (recast), Official Journal of the European Union L180, 29.6.2013, p.60-95, Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32013L0032&from=en (Accessed 28th March 2016)

European Commission (2016a) EU-Turkey Agreement: Questions and Answers, Press Release, 19th March, Available at: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-16-963_en.htm (Accessed 28th March 2016)

European Commission (2016b) Schengen Area, Migration and Home Affairs, Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/schengen/index_en.htm (Accessed 27th March 2016)

Frej W. (2015) Here Are the European Countries that Want to Refuse Refugees, The Huffington Post, 9th September, Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/europe-refugees-not-welcome_us_55ef3dabe4b093be51bc8824 (Accessed 27th March 2016)

Mead R.W. (2015) The Roots of the Migration Crisis, The Wall Street Journal, 11th September, Available at: http://www.wsj.com/articles/the-roots-of-the-migration-crisis-1441995372 (Accessed 27th March 2016)

Mouzourakis M. (2014) ‘We Need to Talk about Dublin’, Refugee Studies Centre Working Paper Series, 105, Available at: http://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/files/publications/working-paper-series/wp105-we-need-to-talk-about-dublin.pdf/ (Accessed 27th March 2016)

OHCHR (2016) UN rights chief expresses serious concerns over EU-Turkey agreement, Media Centre, Geneva, 24th March, Available at: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/media.aspx?IsMediaPage=true (Accessed 27th March 2016)

Regulation (EU) No 604/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013, Official Journal of the European Union L180, 29.06.2013, p.31-59, Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2013:180:0031:0059:EN:PDF(Accessed 27th March 2016)

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UNHCR (2016a) Syria conflict at five years, News Stories, Geneva, 15th March, Available at: http://www.unhcr.org.uk/news-and-views/news-list/news-detail/article/syria-conflict-at-five-years.html (Accessed 26th March 2016)

UNHCR (2016b) UNHCR Special Envoy Angelina Jolie Pitt visits Greece, Press Releases, 16th March, Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/56e94bd96.html#_ga=1.78198612.1919156883.1458842404 (Accessed 25th March 2016)

UNHCR (2015c) Winterization Plan for the Refugee Crisis in Europe, November 2015-February 2016, Geneva, 5th November, Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/563b26049.html (Accessed 27th March 2016)

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Global displacements in the 21st century

Chronicle of Humanitarian Suffering: A Historic record of forced displacements in 2015

For the first time in human history, forced displacements had hit the record of people who were forced to flee their home due to unresolved crises. The UN Refugee Agency warned that one out of every 122 persons on Earth is being forced in involuntary relocation (UNHCR, 2015b).

The last five to six years, at least 15 old and new conflicts have emerged including conflicts, persecutions, violence and violations of human rights. Reaching 60 million, the victims of these displacements can be distinguished in three main groups: refugees, asylum seekers and internally displaced persons (IDPs).

With the global trend of displacements constantly acceding, the conflict in Syria constitutes the main source of refugees and IDPs amassing more than 4.2 million by mid-2015. Furthermore, other armed conflicts in Afghanistan, Burundi, Mali, Somalia, South Sudan, Ukraine and the Democratic Republic of the Congo have contributed in the significant increase of the refugee numbers by 5% from the end of 2011 to mid-2015. After Syria, Afghanistan represents the second-largest source of refugees (2.6 million). Next follow Somalia (1.1 million), South Sudan (nearly 750,000), and Sudan (640,900). Accordingly, the Democratic Republic of Congo (535,300), the Central African Republic (470, 600), Myanmar (458,400), Eritrea (383,000) and Iraq (377,000) shape the top 10 of world’s refugee populations for mid-2015. All data presented above is based on UNHCR¹ report “Mid-Year Trends 2015“.

Asylum-seekers and refugees under international law

According to the international law (1951 Convention and 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees), states are obliged to provide protection to refugees and stateless people. As refugees are defined “all persons outside their country of origin for reasons of feared persecution, conflict, generalised violence or other circumstances that have seriously disturbed public order and who, as a result, require international protection” (UNHCR, 2013).

Respectively, the term of asylum seekers ”can either refer to an individual whose refugee status has not yet been determined by the authorities but whose claim to international protection entitles him or her to a certain protective status on the basis that he or she could be a refugee or to persons forming part of large scale influxes of mixed groups in a situation where individual refugee status determination is impractical” (UNHCR, 2013).

Refugees looking for a shelter in host countries

According to the UNHCR’s press release for the first half of 2015, Turkey hosts the biggest wave of refugees. Lebanon follows with the biggest proportion of refugees to its population size, while Nigeria comes third in place with its economy burdened by the cost of sustenance for refugees.

In Europe, the land of promise and prosperity, refugees are in search of safety and a better quality of life. Many of them attempt to enter the European territory through the Mediterranean Sea by putting their life at huge risk. Thus, sea arrivals have seen a sharp rise between 2014 and 2015, followed by a parallel increase in the numbers of dead/missing persons. For the first quarter of 2016, arrivals by sea have reached the 164,338 (Source: UNHCR – Regional Overview, 2016b). As for the host countries, Germany has accepted the biggest number of asylum-seeks for the first half of 2015, while for the same period Russia takes the second position by accepting asylum seekers from Ukraine after its recent crisis.

In Greece, more than one million refugees from the Middle East -Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan, have crossed its territory since 2015. Indeed, close to 85% of asylum seekers and refugees that found shelter in Europe, entered the European territory through Greece. So far, Greece as a reception country has responded positively in the international humanitarian aid appeal, but the lack of adequate infrastructure and health care services have a negative impact on the living conditions for these people and may favour the spread of serious viruses such as polio.

Photo: Freedom House, Syrian boys, whose family fled their home in Idlib, walk to their tent at a camp for displaced Syrians, in the village of Atmeh, Syria (2012). Source: (flickr.com) | (CC BY 2.0)

Footnotes

[1]United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR):

The mandate of the High Commissioner for Refugees and its Office was established by the UN General Assembly in 1950 with a primary purpose to safeguard the rights and the well being of refugees.

Bibliography

Hussain A.S., Kharoshah A.M. and Menezes G.R. (2016) Refugee Migration Crisis and the Threat of Re-emergence of Polio in the European Union, Perspectives in Public Health, 136 (1): 7, Available at: http://rsh.sagepub.com (Accessed 27th March 2016)

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UNHCR (2015a) Mid-Year Trends 2015, Geneva, Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/56701b969.html (Accessed 26th March 2016)

UNHCR (2015b) UNHCR report confirms worldwide rise in forced displacements in first half 2015, Press Release, Geneva, 18th December, Available at: https://s3.amazonaws.com/unhcrsharedmedia/2015/2015-midyear-trends-report/2015-12-18-UNHCR-MYT15-press-release-English.docx (Accessed 25th March 2016)

UNHCR (2015c) Worldwide displacement hits all-time high as war and persecution increase, News Stories, Geneva, 18th June, Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/558193896.html (Accessed 26th March 2016)

UNHCR (2016a) More than one million refugees travel to Greece since the start of 2015, News Stories, 17th March, Available at: http://www.unhcr.org.uk/news-and-views/news-list/news-detail/article/more-than-one-million-refugees-travel-to-greece-since-the-start-of-2015.html (Accessed 25th March 2016)

UNHCR (2016b) Refugees/Migrants Emergency Response- Mediterranean, Regional Overview, Available at: http://data.unhcr.org/mediterranean/regional.php (Accessed 26th March 2016)

UN News Centre (08/12/2015) Global forced displacement for 2015 on track to break all records, topping 60 million, Available at: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2015/12/global-forced-displacement-for-2015-on-track-to-break-all-records-topping-60-million/ (Accessed 25th March 2016)

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